## Example to show that a polynomial of order n or less that passes through (n+1) data points is unique.

Problem: Through three data pairs (0,0), (3,9) and (4,12), an interpolating polynomial of order 2 or less is found to be y=3x. Prove that there is no other polynomial of order 2 or less that passes through these three points.

See the pdf file for solution.

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• Holistic Numerical Methods Open Course Ware:
• the textbooks on
• the Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs) available at

## Do we have to setup all 3n equations for the n quadratic splines for (n+1) data points?

QUESTION ASKED BY STUDENT: For linear splines, we still find each line individually. In quadratic, we are forced to find every equation at once, correct? Which is where the matrix comes from?

ANSWER: That sounds right, but one can find quadratic equations individually also .
How?
If the first spline is linear, then that spline can be found by the two points it goes through.
Then the second spline goes thru two points, and that gives two equations.  The slope of the second spline is same as the slope of first spline at the common interior point, and the first spline is known. This gives the third eqn.  This process can be repeated for each following spline.

____________________________________

This post is brought to you by Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu, the textbook on Numerical Methods with Applications available from the lulu storefront, the textbook on Introduction to Programming Concepts Using MATLAB, and the YouTube video lectures available at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/videos.  Subscribe to the blog via a reader or email to stay updated with this blog. Let the information follow you.

## Inverse error function using interpolation

In the previous post, https://autarkaw.wordpress.com/2010/09/01/using-int-and-solve-to-find-inverse-error-function-in-matlab/, we found the inverse error function by using the integral and solve MATLAB functions.  In this blog, we find the inverse error function by using interpolation.

The value of erf(x) is given at discrete data points of x, and we use spline interpolation to find the value of x at a given value of erf(x).  The given data points of (x,erf(x)) are (0,0), (0.1,0.1125), (0.25,0.2763), (0.75,0.7112), (1.0,0.8427), (1.5,0.9661), (2.0,0.9953), (5.0,1.000).

It is better to download (right click and save target) the program as single quotes in the pasted version do not translate properly when pasted into a mfile editor of MATLAB or you can read the html version for clarity and sample output.

%% FINDING INVERSE ERROR FUNCTION
% In a previous blog at autarkaw.wordpress.com (Sep 1, 2010), we set up a
% nonlinear equation to find the inverse error function.
% In this blog, we will solve this equation
% by using interpolation.
% The problem is given at
% http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/blog/inverseerror.pdf
% and we are solving Exercise 2 of the pdf file.

%% TOPIC
% Finding inverse error function

%% SUMMARY

% Language : Matlab 2008a;
% Authors : Autar Kaw;
% Mfile available at
% http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/blog/inverse_erf_interp_matlab.m;
% Last Revised : October 4 2010
% Abstract: This program shows you how to find the inverse error function
% using interpolation
clc
clear all

%% INTRODUCTION

disp(‘ABSTRACT’)
disp(‘   This program shows you how to’)
disp(‘   find the inverse error function’)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘AUTHOR’)
disp(‘   Autar K Kaw of https://autarkaw.wordpress.com’)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘MFILE SOURCE’)
disp(‘ http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/blog/inverse_erf_interp_matlab.m’)
disp(‘  ‘)
disp(‘PROBLEM STATEMENT’)
disp(‘ http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/blog/inverseerror.pdf  Exercise 2′)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘LAST REVISED’)
disp(‘   October 4, 2010’)
disp(‘ ‘)

%% INPUTS
% Value of error function
erfx=0.1125;
% Table of erf(x) vs x
xx=[0  0.1  0.25  0.75  1.0  1.5  2.0  5.0];
erfxx=[0  0.1125  0.2763  0.7112  0.8427  0.9661  0.9953  1.0000];

%% DISPLAYING INPUTS

disp(‘INPUTS’)
fprintf(‘ Inverse error function is to be found for= %g’,erfx)
disp(‘  ‘)
disp(‘ Given erf(x) vs x values’)
disp(‘_______________________’)
disp(‘    x          erfx  ‘)
disp(‘________________________’)
dataval=[xx;erfxx]’;
disp(dataval)

%% CODE
if erfx>1.0 | erfx<0
disp(‘Invalid value. erf(x) only takes values in [0,1] range’)
else
inverse_erf=interp1(erfxx,xx,erfx,’cubic’);
%% DISPLAYING OUTPUTS

disp(‘OUTPUTS’)
fprintf(‘ Value of inverse error func from this mfile is= %g’,inverse_erf)
fprintf(‘ \n Value of inverse error func from MATLAB is    = %g’,erfinv(erfx))
disp(‘  ‘)
end

__________________________________________________

This post is brought to you by

Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu,
the textbook on Numerical Methods with Applications available from the lulu storefront,
the textbook on Introduction to Programming Concepts Using MATLAB, and
the YouTube video lectures available at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/videos

## Length of a curve experiment

In a previous post, I mentioned that I have incorporated experiments in my Numerical Methods course. Here I will discuss the second experiment.

In this experiment, we find the length of two curves generated from the same points – one curve is a polynomial interpolant and another one is a spline interpolant.

Motivation behind the experiment: In 1901, Runge conducted a numerical experiment to show that higher order interpolation is a bad idea. It was shown that as you use higher order interpolants to approximate f(x)=1/(1+25x2) in [-1,1], the differences between the original function and the interpolants becomes worse. This concept also becomes the basis why we use splines rather than polynomial interpolation to find smooth paths to travel through several discrete points.

What do students do in the lab: A flexible curve (see Figure) of length 12″ made of lead-core construction with graduations in both millimeters and inches is provided. The student needs to draw a curve similar in shape to the Runge’s curve on the provided graphing paper as shown. It just needs to be similar in shape – the student can make the x-domain shorter and the maximum y-value larger or vice-versa. The student just needs to make sure that there is a one-to-one correspondence of values.

Assigned Exercises: Use MATLAB to solve problems (3 thru 6). Use comments, display commands and fprintf statements, sensible variable names and units to explain your work. Staple all the work in the following sequence.

1. Signed typed affidavit sheet.
2. Attach the plot you drew in the class. Choose several points (at least nine – do not need to be symmetric) along the curve, including the end points. Write out the co-ordinates on the graphing paper curve as shown in the figure.
3. Find the polynomial interpolant that curve fits the data. Output the coefficients of the polynomial.
4. Find the cubic spline interpolant that curve fits the data. Just show the work in the mfile.
5. Illustrate and show the individual points, polynomial and cubic spline interpolants on a single plot.
6. Find the length of the two interpolants – the polynomial and the spline interpolant. Calculate the relative difference between the length of each interpolant and the actual length of the flexible curve.
7. In 100-200 words, type out your conclusions using a word processor. Any formulas should be shown using an equation editor. Any sketches need to be drawn using a drawing software such as Word Drawing. Any plots can be imported from MATLAB.

Where to buy the items for the experiment:

1. Flexible curves – I bought these via internet at Art City. The brand name is Alvin Tru-Flex Graduated Flexible Curves. Prices range from $5 to$12. Shipping and handling is extra – approximately $6 plus 6% of the price. You may want to buy several 12″ and 16″ flexible curves. I had to send a query to the vendor when I did not receive them within a couple of weeks. Alternatively, call your local Art Store and see if they have them. 2. Engineering Graph Paper – Staples or Office Depot. Costs about$12 for a pack for 100-sheet pad.
3. Pencil – Anywhere – My favorite store is the 24-hour Wal-Mart Superstore. $1 for a dozen. 4. Scale – Anywhere – My favorite store is the 24-hour Wal-Mart Superstore.$1 per unit.

This post is brought to you by Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu

## Shortest path for a robot

Imagine a robot that had to go from point to point consecutively (based on x values) on a two dimensional x-y plane. The shortest path in this case would simply be drawing linear splines thru consecutive data. What if the path is demanded to be smooth? Then what!

Well one may use polynomial or quadratic/cubic spline interpolation to develop the path. Which path would be shorter? To find out thru an anecdotal example, click here.

This post is brought to you by Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu

## Finding the length of curve using MATLAB

As per integral calculus, the length of a continuous and differentiable curve f(x) from x=a to x=b is given by

S=$\int_a^b \sqrt{(1+(dy/dx)^2} dx$

Now how do we find the length of a curve in MATLAB.

Let us do this via an example. Assume one asked you to find the length of $x^2*sin(x)$ from Π to 2Π. In the book, How People Learn, the authors mention that learning a concept in multiple contexts prolongs retention. Although it may not be the context that the authors of the book are talking about, let us find the length of the curve multiple ways within MATLAB. Try the program for functions and limits of your own choice to evaluate the difference.

METHOD 1: Use the formula S=$\int_a^b \sqrt{(1+(dy/dx)^2} dx$ by using the diff and int function of MATLAB

METHOD 2: Generate several points between a and b, and join straight lines between consecutive data points. Add the length of these straight lines to find the length of the curve.

METHOD 3. Find the derivative dy/dx numerically using forward divided difference scheme, and then use trapezoidal rule (trapz command in MATLAB) for discrete data with unequal segments to find the length of the curve.

1. Why does METHOD 3 giving inaccurate results? Can you make them better by using better approximations of derivative like central divided difference scheme?
2. Redo the problem with f(x)=$x^{\frac{3}{2}}$ with a=1 and b=4 as the exact length can be found for such a function.

% Simulation : Find length of a given Curve
% Language : Matlab 2007a
% Authors : Autar Kaw
% Last Revised : June 14 2008
% Abstract: We are finding the length of the curve by three different ways
% 1. Using the formula from calculus
% 2. Breaking the curve into bunch of small straight lines
% 3. Finding dy/dx of the formula numerically to use discrete function
% integration
clc
clear all

disp(‘We are finding the length of the curve by three different ways’)
disp(‘1. Using the formula from calculus’)
disp(‘2. Breaking the curve into bunch of small straight lines’)
disp(‘3. Finding dy/dx of the formula numerically to use discrete function integration’)

%INPUTS – this is where you will change input data if you are doing
% a different problem
syms x;
% Define the function
curve=x^2*sin(x)
% lower limit
a=pi
% b=upper limit
b=2*pi
% n = number of straight lines used to approximate f(x) for METHOD 2
n=100
%p = number of discrete data points where dy/dx is calculated for METHOD 3
p=100

% OUTPUTS
% METHOD 1. Using the calculus formula
% S=int(sqrt(1+dy/dx^2),a,b)
% finding dy/dx
poly_dif=diff(curve,x,1);
% applying the formula
integrand=sqrt(1+poly_dif^2);
leng_exact=double(int(integrand,x,a,b));
fprintf (‘\nExact length =%g’,leng_exact)
%***********************************************************************

% METHOD 2. Breaking the curve as if it is made of small length
% straight lines
% Generating n x-points from a to b

xi= a:(b-a)/n:b;
% generating the y-values of the function
yi=subs(curve,x,xi);
% assuming that between consecutive data points, the
% curve can be approximated by linear splines.
leng_straight=0;
m=length(xi);
% there are m-1 splines for m points
for i=1:1:m-1
dx=xi(i+1)-xi(i);
dy= yi(i+1)-yi(i);
leneach=sqrt(dx^2+dy^2);
leng_straight=leng_straight+leneach;
end
fprintf (‘\n\nBreaking the line into short lengths =%g’,leng_straight)

% METHOD 3. Same as METHOD1, but calculating dy/dx
% numerically and integrating using trapz
xi=a:(b-a)/p:b;
% generating the dy/dx-values
m=length(xi);
for i=1:1:m-1
numer=yi(i+1)-yi(i);
den=xi(i+1)-xi(i);
dydxv(i)=numer/den;
end
% derivative at last point using Backward divided difference formula
% is same as Forward divided difference formula
dydxv(m)=dydxv(m-1);
integrandi=sqrt(1+dydxv.*dydxv);
length_fdd=trapz(xi,integrandi);
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp (‘Using numerical value of dy/dx coupled’)
disp (‘with discrete integration’)
fprintf (‘ =%g’,length_fdd)

This post is brought to you by Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu

## A simple MATLAB program to show that High order interpolation is a bad idea

In a previous post, we talked about that higher order interpolation is a bad idea.

In this post I am showing you a MATLAB program that will allow you to experiment by changing the number of data points you choose, that is, the value of n (see the input highlighted in red in the code – this is the only line you want to change) and see for yourself why high order interpolation is a bad idea. Just, cut and paste the code below (or download it from http://www.eng.usf.edu/~kaw/download/runge.m) in the MATLAB editor and run it.

### % Simulation : Higher Order Interpolation is a Bad Idea

% Language : Matlab r12
% Authors : Autar Kaw
% Last Revised : June 10 2008
% Abstract: In 1901, Carl Runge published his work on dangers of high order
% interpolation. He took a simple looking function f(x)=1/(1+25x^2) on
% the interval [-1,1]. He took points equidistantly spaced in [-1,1]
% and interpolated the points with polynomials. He found that as he
% took more points, the polynomials and the original curve differed
% even more considerably. Try n=5 and n=25
clc
clear all
clf

disp(‘In 1901, Carl Runge published his work on dangers of high order’)
disp(‘interpolation. He took a simple looking function f(x)=1/(1+25x^2) on’)
disp(‘the interval [-1,1]. He took points equidistantly spaced in [-1,1]’)
disp(‘and interpolated the points with a polynomial. He found that as he’)
disp(‘took more points, the polynomials and the original curve differed’)
disp(‘even more considerably. Try n=5 and n=15’)

%
% INPUT:
% Enter the following
% n= number of equidisant x points from -1 to +1
n=15;

% SOLUTION
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘SOLUTION’)
disp(‘Check out the plots to appreciate: High order interpolation is a bad idea’)
fprintf(‘\nNumber of data points used =%g’,n)
% h = equidisant spacing between points
h=2.0/(n-1);
syms xx
% generating n data points equally spaced along the x-axis
% First data point
x(1)=-1;
y(1)=subs(1/(1+25*xx^2),xx,-1);
% Other data points
for i=2:1:n
x(i)=x(i-1)+h;
y(i)=subs(1/(1+25*xx^2),xx,x(i));
end

% Generating the (n-1)th order polynomial from the n data points
p=polyfit(x,y,n-1);

% Generating the points on the polynomial for plotting
xpoly=-1:0.01:1;
ypoly=polyval(p,xpoly);

% Generating the points on the function itself for plotting
xfun=-1:0.01:1;
yfun=subs(1/(1+25*xx^2),xx,xfun);

% The classic plot
% Plotting the points
plot(x,y,’o’,’MarkerSize’,10)
hold on
% Plotting the polynomial curve
plot(xpoly,ypoly,’LineWidth’,3,’Color’,’Blue’)
hold on
% Plotting the origianl function
plot(xfun,yfun,’LineWidth’,3,’Color’,’Red’)
hold off
xlabel(‘x’)
ylabel(‘y’)
title(‘Runges Phenomena Revisited’)
legend(‘Data points’,’Polynomial Interpolant’,’Original Function’)
%***********************************************************************
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘What you will find is that the polynomials diverge for’)
disp(‘0.726<|x|<1. If you started to choose same number of points ‘)
disp(‘but more of them close to -1 and +1, you would avoid such divergence. ‘)
disp(‘ ‘)
disp(‘However, there is no general rule to pick points for a general ‘)
disp(‘function so that this divergence is avoided; but some rules do exist for ‘)
disp(‘certian types of functions.’)

This post is brought to you by Holistic Numerical Methods: Numerical Methods for the STEM undergraduate at http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu